History of the Domestication of Sunflowers

History of the Domestication of Sunflowers Sunflowers (Helianthus spp.) are plants native to the American continents, and one of four seed-bearing species known to have been domesticated in eastern North America. The others are squash [Cucurbita pepo var oviferia], marshelder [Iva annua], and chenopod [Chenopodium berlandieri]). Prehistorically, people used sunflower seeds for ornamental and ceremonial use, as well as for food and flavoring. Prior to domestication, wild sunflowers were spread throughout the North and Central American continents. Wild sunflower seeds have been found in numerous locations in eastern North America; the earliest so far is within the American Archaic levels of the Koster site, as early as 8500 calendar years BP (cal BP); when it was precisely domesticated, is difficult to establish, but at least 3,000 cal BP. Identifying Domesticated Versions Archaeological evidence accepted for recognizing the domesticated form of sunflowers (Helianthus annuus L.) is the increase in the average mean length and width of achenethe pod that contains the sunflower seed; and since Charles Heisers comprehensive studies in the 1950s, the established reasonable minimum length for determining whether a particular achene is domesticated has been 7.0 millimeters (about a third of an inch). Unfortunately, that is problematic: because many sunflower seeds and achenes were recovered in the charred (carbonized) state, and carbonization can, and in fact often does, shrink the achene. In addition, the accidental hybridization of wild and domestic formsalso results in smaller sized domestic achenes. Standards to correct for carbonized seeds developed from experimental archaeology on sunflowers from DeSoto National Wildlife Refuge found that carbonized achenes exhibited an average of 12.1% reduction in size after being carbonized. Based on that, Smith (2014) proposed scholars use multipliers of about 1.35-1.61 to estimate the original size. In other words, measurements of carbonized sunflower achenes should be multiplied by 1.35-1.61, and if the majority of the achenes falls over 7 mm, you can reasonably surmise that the seeds are from a domesticated plant. Alternatively, Heiser suggested that a better measure might be the heads (disks) of sunflowers. Domesticated sunflower disks are significantly larger than wild ones, but,  unfortunately, only about two dozen partial or complete heads have been identified archaeologically. Earliest Domestication of Sunflowers The main site of domestication for sunflower appears to have been located in the eastern North American woodlands, from several dry caves and rock shelters of the central and eastern United States. The firmest evidence is from a large assemblage from the Marble Bluff site in the Arkansas Ozarks, securely dated to 3000 cal BP. Other early sites with smaller assemblages but potentially domesticated seeds include Newt Kash Hollow rock shelter in eastern Kentucky (3300 cal BP); Riverton, Eastern Illinois (3600-3800 cal BP); Napoleon Hollow, central Illinois (4400 cal BP); the Hayes site in central Tennessee (4840 cal BP); and Koster in Illinois (ca 6000 cal BP). In sites more recent than 3000 cal BP, domesticate sunflowers are frequent occurrences. Early domesticated sunflower seed and achene was reported from the San Andrà ©s site in Tabasco, Mexico, direct dated by AMS to between 4500-4800 cal BP. However, recent genetic research has shown that all modern domestic sunflowers developed from the wild eastern North American species. Some scholars have argued that the San Andres specimens may not be sunflower  but if they are, they represent a second, later domestication event that failed. Sources Crites, Gary D. 1993 Domesticated sunflower in Fifth Millennium B.P temporal context: New evidence from middle Tennessee. American Antiquity 58(1):146-148. Damiano, Fabrizio, Luigi R. Ceci, Luisa Siculella, and Raffaele Gallerani 2002 Transcription of two sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) mitochondrial tRNA genes having different genetic origins. Gene  286(1):25-32. Heiser Jr. CB. 1955. The origin and development of the cultivated sunflower. The American Biology Teacher 17(5):161-167. Lentz, David L., et al. 2008 Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) as a pre-Columbian domesticate in Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105(17):6232-6237. Lentz D, Pohl M, Pope K, and Wyatt A. 2001. Prehistoric sunflower (Helianthus Annuus L.) domestication in Mexico. Economic Botany  55(3):370-376. Piperno, Dolores R. 2001 On Maize and the Sunflower. Science  292(5525):2260-2261. Pope, Kevin O., et al. 2001 Origin and Environmental Setting of Ancient Agriculture in the Lowlands of Mesoamerica. Science 292(5520):1370-1373. Smith BD. 2014. The domestication of Helianthus annuus L. (sunflower). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 23(1):57-74. doi: 10.1007/s00334-013-0393-3 Smith, Bruce D. 2006 Eastern North America as an independent center of plant domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103(33):12223-12228.

Free Essays on The Healing Power Of Prayer & Fasting

The Healing Power of Prayer & Fasting There are many societies throughout the world that have utilized fasting and prayer as modalities for healing. Fasting and prayer have been the cornerstones of these societies everyday religious and spiritual practices. One particular society in history, the Gnostic Essenes, incorporated fasting and prayer not only as an everyday religious and spiritual way of life, but was used by the Elect to be initiated into the higher mysteries and become â€Å"Sons of God†. The Essenes were a sect of people who were considered by most in their time to be the most righteous of God. They were healers in the truest sense of the word, for they gave one the tools and means to transform his entire being (physical, mental, emotional, & spiritual). They developed their own prayers and rituals. They incorporated raw food eating. They felt that the sins of the parents were visited on the children. So they hoped that in generations to come, their descendants would transcend their ills. For 500 years they groomed a messiah to carry the message to the rest of the world. They produced Jesus. Jesus traveled the lands, and built a reputation for healing. Through Jesus were people being initiated into the Mysteries from which he came. He revealed to them the source of disease & sickness. In The Essene Gospel of Peace it is written: â€Å"For I tell you truly, evils and dangers innumerable lie in wait for the Sons of Men. Beelzebub, the prince of all devils, the source of every evil, lies in wait in the body of all the Sons of Men. He is death, the lord of every plague, and taking upon him a pleasing raiment, he tempts and entices the Sons of Men. Riches does he promise, and power, and splendid palaces, and garments of gold and silver, and a multitude of servants, all these; he promises renown and glory, fornication and lustfulness, gluttony and wine-bibbing, riotous living, and slothf... Free Essays on The Healing Power Of Prayer & Fasting Free Essays on The Healing Power Of Prayer & Fasting The Healing Power of Prayer & Fasting There are many societies throughout the world that have utilized fasting and prayer as modalities for healing. Fasting and prayer have been the cornerstones of these societies everyday religious and spiritual practices. One particular society in history, the Gnostic Essenes, incorporated fasting and prayer not only as an everyday religious and spiritual way of life, but was used by the Elect to be initiated into the higher mysteries and become â€Å"Sons of God†. The Essenes were a sect of people who were considered by most in their time to be the most righteous of God. They were healers in the truest sense of the word, for they gave one the tools and means to transform his entire being (physical, mental, emotional, & spiritual). They developed their own prayers and rituals. They incorporated raw food eating. They felt that the sins of the parents were visited on the children. So they hoped that in generations to come, their descendants would transcend their ills. For 500 years they groomed a messiah to carry the message to the rest of the world. They produced Jesus. Jesus traveled the lands, and built a reputation for healing. Through Jesus were people being initiated into the Mysteries from which he came. He revealed to them the source of disease & sickness. In The Essene Gospel of Peace it is written: â€Å"For I tell you truly, evils and dangers innumerable lie in wait for the Sons of Men. Beelzebub, the prince of all devils, the source of every evil, lies in wait in the body of all the Sons of Men. He is death, the lord of every plague, and taking upon him a pleasing raiment, he tempts and entices the Sons of Men. Riches does he promise, and power, and splendid palaces, and garments of gold and silver, and a multitude of servants, all these; he promises renown and glory, fornication and lustfulness, gluttony and wine-bibbing, riotous living, and slothf...

Proposal #1 Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

#1 - Research Proposal Example Natural oils- linseed, tung, and fish were used as binders until the 1960’s (Schuerman George and Bruzan Raymond 327). Currently, alkyd resins, vinyl and acrylic emulsions, epoxy resins and polyurethanes are the primary binders used in paints. Solvent chosen must be one in which the binder is soluble in and dries evenly. Most emulsion paints use water as the solvent while resin-based paints employ the use of mineral turpentine as the solvent. Pigments are finely divided, and insoluble powders dispersed in the paint that not only give paint its opacity and color, but also help to hold the paint together as well as protect the surface underneath from corrosion and weathering. Inorganic and organic substances are used as pigments with the inorganic ones being cheaper but with fewer clear colors. The tiny solid particles of pigments (≠¤ 1 µm in diameter) enables them to refract light (light has wavelengths between 0.4 µm and

Business memo Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business memo - Personal Statement Example It gives them opportunity to find practical implications of the theories involved in business communication. One major advantage of this approach is that it creates a positive learning environment within the classroom which further facilitates learning. The trained incapacities of the students can be challenged with this approach. Learning by Doing is an ideal methodology to make the learning process more customised and effective. An introductory activity which is done in connection with the teaching point creates a platform to learn by doing. The reflections and observations from this activity could be used as indicators for different theories to be taught. However, it is important that these observations are effectively deciphered by the teacher leading to the theories to be taught. More importantly it creates an environment where in the learners can involve in challenging opportunities to discuss, question and test the implications of the knowledge being shared. Thus the inhibitions on participation in learning activities are replaced with enthusiasm and activeness. In totality, these activities provide the teacher with a readily involving student group and in turn the students are provided with a collaborative environment and a community of learners. In either case, a background conductive of effective le arning is created wherein there is no fear of making mistakes. These teaching strategies facilitate learning especially in the context of introduction to business. As the subject is new to the students it is important that at the outset it is made sure that the basic concepts are conveyed to students in terms of its practical implications in business. As introduction to business is taught in a stage where the student community has not integrated completely into the academic system, it is important that a levelling of the students is ensured.

Literature Review - Increasing the retention and graduation rate of Essay

Literature Review - Increasing the retention and graduation rate of Latino college students - Essay Example This trend has conventionally flared up many issues of equity and race because of a resulting decrease in the economic prosperity and social status of Latino minority in America in comparison to the White majority. After a steady decline in college participation of Latino students between 1970s and early years of the decade from 1980 to 1990, the percentage of their college attendance has increased. However, this increase in college attendance of Latino students is accompanied with an increase in the stratification of institutions. According to Karen (1991 cited in Thomas, 1998, p.1), a vast majority of the Latino students joined the institutions which would generate least socioeconomic returns. After completion of high school studies, most Latino students seek admission in two-year colleges unlike their White peers, who go for a four-year enrollment in college. Lack of provision of high quality education to students from such minorities as Latinos ruins their future and they lag beh ind others financially (Lynch and Engle, 2010). The increase in population of Latino students in American colleges that has occurred in the recent years has exposed the university personnel to numerous types of challenges that revolve around the factors affecting the retention of these students. Within the Latino community, there exist a lot of differences in the ability to obtain education. According to Creighton (n.d.), these factors can be divided into four types. These four types are personal factors, involvement factors, environmental factors and the socio-cultural factors (Creighton, n.d.). These factors are discussed below: Personal factors include pre-college characteristics or background variables that vary from one student to another. Personal factors give explanation for the patterns of students’ adjustment in college. These factors include but are not limited to scores in tests, grade point average (GPA), the students’ academic self concept, availability of finances and support from the family. The traditional measurements of a student’s academic performance have long remained the criterion for admission into college. Such scales include the student’s GPA in high school studies and the score he/she gains in the college entry test. The level to which a student would be successful in the college is estimated on the basis of his/her performance in high school. According to Lesure-Lester (2003), â€Å"there is evidence that indicates test scores may not predict early college grades for Hispanic students as well as it does for White students† (Creighton, n.d.). The involvement of students in the campus community has a positive impact on their ability to learn. Involvement factors include the interaction of students with mentors, role of teachers, and their participation in the activities of students. The Environmental theory offers explanation for the association of a student with the environment in campus. Behavior of a student is heavily influenced by the environment of the institution. In a vast majority of cases, students tend to be discouraged because of the existence of oppressive factors in the environment. Such factors include racism, bullying, teasing and threatening. As Latino students form a minority in the US, they are prone to receiving racism by their peers

Answering questions and doing research Assignment

Answering questions and doing research - Assignment Example They do not indicate any doubt on the Adidas products or material durability. The only challenge that came out, however, was the issue of design and price. There is a need for Adidas to input more efforts and try to design new products that are attractive to the customers. Several people have heard about â€Å"Adidas† as a brand and have bought Adidas products before. However, the populations had varying attitudes and perception towards Adidas. Some thought that Adidas was a product of some famous football (Regine Business Research, 2013). Research also reveals that other people initially thought that Adidas was a brand meant for people who were of very high class. Most of the people, however, indicated that they buy Adidas products and prefer the Adidas products over the products of other brands such as Nike and Puma. Several respondents feel satisfied with the material and quality used in the products of Adidas. The respondents however had issues with the design of the products of Adidas. They feel that Adidas design is sub-standard with no attractive, stylish design. Several people preferred the Nike designs. Some people compare it to Nike and come out with some differences. Some people feel that Adidas has a problem with its branding as compared to Nike. People get positive and immediate impressions when thinking about the Nike brand and to the contrary, not when the same people think about the brand of Adidas. Adidas has got no stellar branding work like Nike making the market share of Nike relative. As a result, the worldwide market share of Adidas is almost half that of Nike (Regine Business Research, 2013). It is very important for Adidas to consider the influences from the groups because the groups and the company mutually depend on each other. According to Beard (2014), the groups consume the products of Adidas and, therefore, influence the success of the company

Performance of Mythic Oil Le Parfum and for it Coursework

Performance of Mythic Oil Le Parfum and for it - Coursework Example This research will begin with the statement that for companies to sustain in the current global scenario, it has become necessary to focus on aggressive innovation strategies, as it would permit constant extension to the product lines and help preserve brand image to retain competitive advantages. As Porter & Kramer notes, in today’s capitalist market, producing shared values for stakeholders through innovative strategies is too necessary for organizations to ensure their long-term success. This particular trend has already influenced many organizations around the world, including Unilever, Nestle, Johnson & Johnson, and many others. As a matter of fact, indeed, product innovation is quite easily associable with the brand name of The LOrà ©al Group. Almost every year, the company launches new products as per the review of the market changes, which reflects the current consumer demands and preferences. It is thus that the company obtains competitive advantages by serving the c ustomers’ needs through continuous product innovation. It was in the year 2013 that the company launched a new range of products for its global customers, targeting both men and women. Among the newly launched products, one was the Mythic Oil Le Parfum, which has gained much appreciation since its launch in 2013. In the discussion henceforth, emphasis will be laid on the performance of the product selected, i.e. Mythic Oil Le Parfum since its launch. Special emphasis will also be delivered to identify the drivers’ responsibilities to trigger such performance of product along with its challenges applying theories relevant to the context. The objective of the discussion is thus to evaluate the performance of the product chosen and identify the reasons for its success in the global market after its launch. There is a wide-ranging product line introduced by L’Oreal in the global market targeting its male and female customers. Every year the brand intends to extend i ts product line with the introduction of new products as per the market preferences, needs, and trends. Therefore, it can be stated that the company emphasizes continuous innovation in its product line to enhance its competitive position.